A Brief History And Analysis Of Portrayal Of Women Essay

McNamara 6 Alyssa McNamara Dr. Michael I. Niman SPC 333 5 December 2016 A Brief History and Analysis of the Portrayal of Women in Magazines Throughout history women have been depicted and treated as an inferior to the male all aspects of life. It is without debate, that to this day, like many other countries, the United States of America is a patriarchal society, valuing men over women and using various tactics to oppress women by constructing gender roles. These gender roles are thrust upon people before birth and are reinforced through society within the media. This object here is to provide an overview of the portrayal of women in magazines from the late 1800’s to present day. As the years progress, so do the number of women’s rights. While women are still fighting for equality, the birth of feminism has done much to close the gender gap. Mass media, magazines in particular, facilitated in fostering a stereotype which became the standard, and continues to be, used by society. A society that continues to oppress and sup press its women. However, as the mass media has the capability to demystify, or to bring down and/or destroy a particular group or person, they also have the ability of mystification, or emulating a person or group into society’s graces. I plan to review how women were portrayed since this country’s inception with an analysis of how gender equality might be possible today. HISTORY In the 1900’s, the United States of America was a young and stillShow MoreRelatedThe Goddess And The Nation : Mapping Mother India1544 Words   |  7 PagesIn her book â€Å"The Goddess and the Nation: Mapping Mother India†, Sumathi Ramaswamy takes a glance into the time when Mother India / Bharat Mata emerged on the land of India, and talks about her significance, portrayal and mapping. 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Third Generation (3g) Wireless White Paper Free Essays

string(86) " 2G wireless technology is known as Global Systems for Mobile Communications \(GSM\)\." March 2000 Third Generation (3G) Wireless White Paper Trillium Digital Systems, Inc. March 2000 Trillium Digital Systems, Inc. 12100 Wilshire Blvd. We will write a custom essay sample on Third Generation (3g) Wireless White Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now , Suite 1800 Los Angeles, CA 90025-7118 Phone: +1 (310) 442-9222 Fax: +1 (310) 442-1162 Web: http://www. trillium. com (c) 1989 – 2000. Trillium Digital Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Trillium and Trillium Digital Systems are registered trademarks of Trillium Digital Systems, Inc. Other referenced trademarks are trademarks (registered or otherwise) of the respective trademark owners. Printed in U. S.A Information relating to the products furnished herein by Trillium Digital Systems, Inc. is believed to be accurate and reliable. Trillium assumes no liability for errors that may appear in this document, or for liability otherwise arising from the application or use of any such information or product or for any infringement of patents or other intellectual property rights owned by third parties which may result from such application or use. The products, their specifications and the information appearing in this document are subject to change without notice. March 2000 Table of Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.Introduction 3G Wireless Market Drivers Existing Mobile Networks Next Generation Mobile Networks Evolution to 3G Wireless Technology Comparison of 2G and 3G Mobile Networks Trillium’s Wireless Software Solution About Trillium March 2000 1. Introduction Third Generation (3G) mobile devices and services will transform wireless communications into on-line, real-time connectivity. 3G wireless technology will allow an individual to have immediate access to location-specific services that offer information on demand. The first generation of mobile phones consisted of the analog models that emerged in the early 1980s.The second generation of digital mobile phones appeared about ten years later along with the first digital mobile networks. During the second generation, the mobile telecommunications industry experienced exponential growth both in terms of subscribers as well as new types of value-added services. Mobile phones are rapidly becoming the preferred means of personal communication, creating the world’s largest consumer electronics industry. The rapid and efficient deployment of new wireless data and Internet services has emerged as a critical priority for communications equipment manufacturers.Network components that enable wireless data services are fundamental to the next-generation network infrastructure. Wireless data services are expected to see the same explosive growth in demand that Internet services and wireless voice services have seen in recent years. This white paper presents an overview of current technology trends in the wireless technology market, a historical overview of the evolving wireless technologies and an examination of how the communications industry plans to implement 3G wirel ess technology standards to address the growing demand for wireless multimedia services.Finally, this paper presents Trillium’s solutions which enable wireless communications and Internet infrastructure equipment manufacturers to develop 3G network elements for quick and efficient deployment. March 2000 2. 3G Wireless Market Drivers Telecommunications service providers and network operators are embracing the recently adopted global third generation (3G) wireless standards in order to address emerging user demands and to provide new services. The concept of 3G wireless technology represents a shift from voice-centric services to multimedia-oriented (voice, data, video, fax) services.In addition, heavy demand for remote access to personalized data is fueling development of applications, such as the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) and multimedia management, to complement the 3G protocols. Complementary standards, such as Bluetooth, will enable interoperability between a mobile terminal (phone, PDA etc. ) and other electronic devices, such as a laptop/desktop and peripherals, providing added convenience to the consumer and allowing for the synchronization and uploading of information at all times.According to Lehman Brothers, approximately 50 percent of current voice ser vices subscribers are expected to use wireless data services by 2007, instead of 25 percent as previously forecast . Lehman Brothers further predicts that, within seven years, 18 percent of cellular revenues and 21 percent of PCS (personal communications services) revenue will come from wireless data services. Cellular subscriptions are forecast to exceed one billion by 2003 , compared with the 306 million that was forecast at the end of 1998, representing a compound annual growth of 29 percent.Demand for voice services has traditionally been a market driver. However, today, demand for data services has emerged as an equally significant market driver. After many years of stasis, the telecommunications industry is undergoing revolutionary changes due to the impact of increased demand for data services on wireline and wireless networks. Up until recently, data traffic over mobile networks remained low at around 2% due to the bandwidth limitations of the present second-generation (2G) wireless networks.Today, new technologies are quickly emerging that will optimize the transport of data services and offer higher bandwidth in a mobile environment. As a case in point, the increased use of the Internet as an acceptable source for information distribution and retrieval, in conjunction with the increased demand for global mobility has created a need for 3G wireless communications protocols. The third generation of mobile communications will greatly enhance the implementation of sophisticated wireless applications.Users will be able to utilize personal, location-based wireless information and interactive services. Also, many companies and corporations are restructuring their business processes to be able to fully exploit the opportunities provided by the emerging new wireless data services. Many advanced wireless services are already available today, and the introduction of 3G wireless technologies will add to their ubiquity. 2 1 1 2 Business Wire, Feb 25, 2000 Mobile Data Handbook, The Road to Mobile Internet by Merrill Lynch, 24 September 1999 March 2000 . 3. 1 Existing Mobile Networks First Generation Wireless Technology The first generation of wireless mobile communications was based on analog signalling. Analog systems, implemented in North America, were known as Analog Mobile Phone Systems (AMPS), while systems implemented in Europe and the rest of the world were typically identified as a variation of Total Access Communication Systems (TACS). Analog systems were primarily based on circuit-switched technology and designed for voice, not data. 3. 2 Second Generation Wireless TechnologyThe second generation (2G) of the wireless mobile network was based on low-band digital data signalling. The most popular 2G wireless technology is known as Global Systems for Mobile Communications (GSM). You read "Third Generation (3g) Wireless White Paper" in category "Papers" GSM systems, first implemented in 1991, are now operating in about 140 countries and territories around the world. An estimated 248 million users now operate over GSM systems. GSM technology is a combination of Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). The first GSM systems used a 25MHz frequency spectrum in the 900MHz band.FDMA is used to divide the available 25MHz of bandwidth into 124 carrier frequencies of 200kHz each. Each frequency is then divided using a TDMA scheme into eight timeslots. The use of separate timeslots for transmission and reception simplifies the electronics in the mobile units. Today, GSM systems operate in the 900MHz and 1. 8 GHz bands throughout the world with the exception of the Americas where they operate in the 1. 9 GHz band. In addition to GSM, a similar technology, called Personal Digital Communications (PDC), using TDMA-based technology, emerged in Japan.Since then, several other TDMA-based systems have been deployed worldwide and serve an estimated 89 million people worldwide. While GSM technology was developed in Europe, Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) technology was developed in North America. CDMA uses spread spectrum technology to break up speech into small, digitized segments and encodes them to identify each call. CDMA systems have been implemented worldwide in about 30 countries and serve an estimated 44 million subscribers. While GSM and other TDMA-based systems have become the dominant 2G wireless technologies, CDMA technology is recognized as providing clearer voice quality with less background noise, fewer dropped calls, enhanced security, greater reliability and greater network capacity. The Second Generation (2G) wireless networks mentioned above are also mostly based on circuit-switched technology. 2G wireless networks are digital and expand the range of applications to more advanced voice services, such as Called Line Identification. G wireless technology can handle some data capabilities such as fax and short message service at the data rate of up to 9. 6 kbps, but it is not suitable for web browsing and multimedia applications. March 2000 4. 4. 1 Next Generation Mobile Networks Second Generation (2G+) Wireless Networks As stated in a previous section, the virtual explosion of Internet usage has had a tremendous impact on the demand for advanced wireless data communication services. However, the effective data rate of 2G circuit-switched wireless systems is relatively slow — too slow for today’s Internet.As a result, GSM, PDC and other TDMA-based mobile system providers and carriers have developed 2G+ technology that is packet-based and increases the data communication speeds to as high as 384kbps. These 2G+ systems are based on the following technologies: High Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) technologies. HSCSD is one step towards 3G wideband mobile data networks. This circuit-switched technology improves the data rates up to 57. 6kbps by introducing 14. 4 kbps data coding and by aggregating 4 radio channels timeslots of 14. kbps. GPRS is an intermediate step that is designed to allow the GSM world to implement a full range of Internet services without waiting for the deployment of full-scale 3G wireless systems. GPRS technology is packet-based and designed to work in parallel with the 2G GSM, PDC and TDMA systems that are used for voice communications and for table look-up to obtain GPRS user profiles in the Location Register databases. GPRS uses a multiple of the 1 to 8 radio channel timeslots in the 200kHz-frequency band allocated for a carrier frequency to enable data speeds of up to 115kbps.The data is packetized and transported over Public Land Mobile Networks (PLMN) using an IP backbone so that mobile users can access services on the Internet, such as SMTP/POP-based e-mail, ftp and HTTP-based Web services. For more information on GPRS, please see Trillium’s General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) White Paper at http://www. trillium. com/whats-new/wp_gprs. html EDGE technology is a standard that has been specified to enhance the throughput per timeslot for both HSCSD and GPRS. The enhancement of HSCSD is called ECSD, whereas the enhancement of GPRS is called EGPRS.In ECSD, the maximum data rate will not increase from 64 kbps due to the restrictions in the A interface, but the data rate per timeslot will triple. Similarly, in EGPRS, the data rate per timeslot will triple and the peak throughput, including all eight timeslots in the radio interface, will exceed 384 kbps. March 2000 GPRS networks consist of an IP-based Public Mobile Land Network (PLMN), Base Station Services (BSS), Mobile handsets (MS), and Mobile Switching Centers (MSC) for circuit-switched network access and databases. The Serving GPRS Support Nodes (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GGSN) make up the PLMN.Roaming is accommodated through multiple PLMNs. SGSN and GGSN interface with the Home Location Register (HLR) to retrieve the mobile user’s profiles to facilitate call completion. GGSN provides the connection to external Packet Data Network (PDN), e. g. an Internet backbone or an X. 25 network. The BSS consists of Base Transceiver Stations and Base Station Controllers. The Base Transceiver Station (BTS) receives and transmits over the air interfaces (CDMA, TDMA), providing wireless voice and data connectivity to the mobile handsets.Base Station Controllers (BSC) route the data calls to the packet-switched PLMN over a Frame Relay (FR) link and the voice calls to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC). MSC switches the voice calls to circuit-switched PLMN network such as PSTN and ISDN. MSC accommodates the Visitor Location Register (VLR) to store the roaming subscriber information. The reverse process happens at the destination PLMN and the destination BSS. On the data side, the BSC routes the data calls to the SGSN, and then the data is switched to the external PDN through the GGSN or to another mobile subscriber. Figure 1 shows a GPRS network. PSTN/ ISDN GMSC C MSC E VLR C GPRS Network Internet Gi Gi SGSN Gs Ga Gr HLR, AuC/EIR D Gn SGSN Gn Ga 2G Network GGSN CGF PSDN (X. 25) A Packet Switched Network FR Gb BSC BSS BTS Abis BTS Um March 2000 Figure 2 shows the protocols used in BTS, BSC, SGSN, GGSN, and mobile handsets: IWF MAP TCAP SNDCP BSSAP+ GMM/SM /SMS GTP TCP / UDP IP L2 PHY LLC BSSGP Network Service Q. 922 (Core) PHY GPRS Network Gn GTP TCP / UDP IP L2 PHY LAPB PHY X. 25 TCP / UDP IP L2 SCCP MTP3 MTP2 MTP1 Gn SGSN Ga Ga GGSN CGF Packet Switched Network FR GTP TCP / UDP IP L2 PHY IP / X. 25 GTP TCP / UDP IP L2 PHYGMM/SM MAP TCAP SCCP MTP3 MTP2 MTP1 LLC Relay BSSGP Network Service Q. 922 (Core) PHY BSC Gb Application BSS LLC Relay RLC MAC GSM RF Abis BTS BTS Um IP / X. 25 GMM/ SM/SMS SNDCP LLC RLC MAC GSM RF March 2000 The following is a brief description of each protocol layer in the GPRS network infrastructure:  § Sub-Network Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP): protocol that maps a networklevel protocol, such as IP or X. 25, to the underlying logical link control. SNDCP also provides other functions such as compression, segmentation and multiplexing of network-layer messages to a single virtual connection. Logical Link Control (LLC): a data link layer protocol for GPRS which functions similar to Link Access Protocol – D (LAPD). This layer assures the reliable transfer of user data across a wireless network.  § Base Station System GPRS Protocol (BSSGP): processes routing and quality of service (QoS) information for the BSS. BSSGP uses the Frame Relay Q. 922 core protocol as its transport mechanism.  § GPRS Tunnel Protocol (GTP): protocol that tunnels the protocol data units through the IP backbone by adding routing information. GTP operates on top of TCP/UDP over IP. GPRS Mobility Management (GMM/SM): protocol that operates in the signalling plane of GPRS, handles mobility issues such as roaming, authentication, selection of encryption algorithms and maintains PDP context.  § Network Service: protocol that manages the convergence sub-layer that operates between BSSGP and the Frame Relay Q. 922 Core by mapping BSSGP’s service requests to the appropriate Frame Relay services.  § BSSAP+: protocol that enables paging for voice connections from MSC via SGSN, thus optimizing paging for mobile subscribers. BSSAP+ is also responsible for location and routing updates as well as mobile station alerting. †¢ SCCP, MTP3, MTP2 are protocols used to support Mobile Application Part (MAP) and BSSAP+ in circuit switched PLMNs.  § Mobile Application Part (MAP): supports signaling between SGSN/GGSN and HLR/AuC/EIR. March 2000 4. 2 Third Generation (3G) Wireless Networks 3G wireless technology represents the convergence of various 2G wireless telecommunications systems into a single global system that includes both terrestrial and satellite components.One of the most important aspects of 3G wireless technology is its ability to unify existing cellular standards, such as CDMA, GSM, and TDMA, under one umbrella. The following three air interface modes accomplish this result: wideband CDMA, CDMA2000 and the Universal Wireless Communication (UWC-136) interfaces. Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) is compatible with the current 2G GSM networks prevalent in Europe and parts of Asia. W-CDMA will require bandwidth of between 5Mhz and 10 Mhz, making it a suitable platform for higher capacity applications. It can be overlaid onto existing GSM, TDMA (IS-36) and IS95 networks.Subscribers are likely to access 3G wireless services initially via dual band terminal devices. W-CDMA networks will be used for high-capacity applications and 2G digital wireless systems will be used for voice calls. The second radio interface is CDMA2000 which is backward compatible with the second generation CDMA IS-95 standard predominantly used in US. The third radio interface, Universal Wireless Communications – UWC-136, also called IS-136HS, was proposed by the TIA and designed to comply with ANSI-136, the North American TDMA standard. 3G wireless networks consist of a Radio Access Network (RAN) and a core network.The core network consists of a packet-switched domain, which includes 3G SGSNs and GGSNs, which provide the same functionality that they provide in a GPRS system, and a circuit-switched domain, which includes 3G MSC for switching of voice calls. Charging for services and access is done through the Charging Gateway Function (CGF), which is also part of the core network. RAN functionality is independent from the core network functionality. The access network provides a core network technology independent access for mobile terminals to different types of core networks and network services.Either core network domain can access any appropriate RAN service; e. g. it should be possible to access a â€Å"speech† radio access bearer from the packetswitched domain. March 2000 The Radio Access Network consists of new network elements, known as Node B and Radio Network Controllers (RNCs). Node B is comparable to the Base Transceiver Station in 2G wireless networks. RNC replaces the Base Station Controller. It provides the radio resource management, handover control and support for the connections to circuit-switched and packet-switched domains.The interconnection of the network elements in RAN and between RAN and core network is over Iub, Iur and Iu interfaces based on ATM as a layer 2 switching technology. Data services run from the terminal device over IP, which in turn uses ATM as a reliable transport with QoS. Voice is embedded into ATM from the edge of the network (Node B) and is transported over ATM out of the RNC. The Iu interface is split into 2 parts: circuitswitched and packet-switched. The Iu interface is based on ATM with voice traffic embedded on virtual circuits using AAL2 technology and IP-over-ATM for data traffic using AAL5 technology.These traffic types are switched independently to either 3G SGSN for data or 3G MSC for voice. Figure 3 shows the 3G wireless network architecture. PSTN/ ISDN 3G MSC VLR HLR, AuC/EIR Core Network D Gs Gr Gc Gn Gi Internet 3G SGSN Ga Ga Gi GGSN CGF PSDN (X. 25) Circuit Switched Network Packet Switched Network Iu RNC Iu ATM IP Iur RNC RNS Node B Node B RNS Node B Iub Node B Uu Uu March 2000 Figure 4 shows protocols used in Node B, RNC and mobile handsets. Q. 2630. 1 RANAP / RNSAP SCCP M3UA Circuit Switched Network ATM Iu RNC Packet Switched Network IP Iu RNC GTP NBAP Q. 2150. 2 Q. 2150. 1 MTP3B Q. 2130 Q. 2140 PDCP RRC RLC MAC AAL2 AAL2 CPSUDP IP CIP SSCOP AAL5 SAR AAL5 CPS UDP SCTP I ur I ub RNS Node B Node B Node B IP ATM RNS Node B Q. 2630. 1 NBAP Q. 2150. 2 IP, PPP, OSP PDCP RLC GMM/ SM RRC RLC MAC L1 AAL2 SSSAR AAL2 CPS ATM Q. 2130 SSCOP AAL5 SAR AAL5 CPS MAC L1 March 2000 The following is a brief description of each protocol layer in a 3G wireless network infrastructure:  § Global Mobility Management (GMM): protocol that includes attach, detach, security, and routing area update functionality.  § Node B Application Part (NBAP): provides procedures for paging distribution, broadcast system information and management of dedicated and logical resources. Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP): maps higher level characteristics onto the characteristics of the underlying radio-interface protocols. PDCP also provides protocol transparency for higher layer protocols.  §  § Radio Link Control (RLC): provides a logical link control over the radio interface. Medium Access Control (MAC): controls the access signaling (request and grant) procedures for the radio channel.  § Radio resource Control (RRC): manages the allocation and maintenance of radio communication paths.  § Radio Access Network Application Protocol (RANAP): encapsulates higher layer signaling. Manages the signaling and GTP connections between RNC and 3G-SGSN, and signaling and circuit-switched connections between RNC and 3G MSC.  § Radio Network Service Application Part (RNSAP): provides the communication between RNCs.  § GPRS Tunnel Protocol (GTP): protocol that tunnels the protocol data units through the IP backbone by adding routing information. GTP operates on top of TCP/UDP over IP.  § Mobile Application Part (MAP): supports signaling between SGSN/GGSN and HLR/AuC/EIR.  § AAL2 Signaling (Q. 2630. 1, Q. 2150. 1, Q. 2150. , AAL2 SSSAR, and AAL2 CPS): protocols suite used to transfer voice over ATM backbone using ATM adaptation layer 2.  § Sigtran (SCTP, M3UA): protocols suite used to transfer SCN signaling protocols over IP network. March 2000 5. Evolution to 3G Wireless Technology Initial coverage Initially, 3G wireless technology will be deployed as â€Å"islands† in business areas where more capacity and advanced services are demanded. A complete evolution to 3G wireless technology is mandated by the end of 2000 in Japan (mostly due to capacity requirements) and by the end of 2001 in Europe.NTT DoCoMo is deploying 3G wireless services in Japan in the third quarter of 2000. In contrast, there is no similar mandate in North America and it is more likely that competition will drive the deployment of 3G wireless technology in that region. For example, Nextel Communications has announced that it will be deploying 3G wireless services in North America during the fourth quarter of 2000. The implementation of 3G wireless systems raises several critical issues, such as the successful backward compatibility to air interfaces as well as to deployed infrastructures. Interworking with 2G and 2G+ Wireless NetworksThe existence o f legacy networks in most regions of the world highlights the challenge that communications equipment manufacturers face when implementing next-generation wireless technology. Compatibility and interworking between the new 3G wireless systems and the old legacy networks must be achieved in order to ensure the acceptance of new 3G wireless technology by service providers and end-users. The existing core technology used in mobile networks is based on traditional circuit-switched technology for delivery of voice services. However, this traditional technology is inefficient for the delivery of multimedia services.The core switches for next-generation of mobile networks will be based on packet-switched technology which is better suited for data and multimedia services. Second generation GSM networks consist of BTS, BSC, MSC/VLR and HLR/AuC/EIR network elements. The interfaces between BTS, BSC and MSC/VLR elements are circuit-switched PCM. GPRS technology adds a parallel packet-switched core network. The 2G+ network consists of BSC with packet interfaces to SGSN, GGSN, HLR/AuC/EIR. The interfaces between BSC and SGSN network elements are either Frame Relay and/or ATM so as to provide reliable transport with Quality of Service (QoS).March 2000 3G wireless technology introduces new Radio Access Network (RAN) consisting of Node B and RNC network elements. The 3G Core Network consists of the same entities as GSM and GPRS: 3G MSC/VLR, GMSC, HLR/AuC/EIR, 3G-SGSN, and GGSN. IP technology is used end-to-end for multimedia applications and ATM technology is used to provide reliable transport with QoS. 3G wireless solutions allow for the possibility of having an integrated network for circuit-switched and packet-switched services by utilizing ATM technology. The BSC may evolve into an RNC by using add-on cards or additional hardware that is co-located. The carrier frequency (5Mhz) and the bands (2. 5 to 5Ghz) are different for 3G wireless technology compared to 2G/2G+ wireless technology. Evolution of BSC to RNC requires support for new protocols such as PDCP, RRC, RANAP, RNSAP and NBAP. Therefore, BTS’ evolution into Node B may prove to be difficult and may represent significant capital expenditure on the part of network operators. MSC evolution depends on the selection of a fixed network to carry the requested services. If an ATM network is chosen, then ATM protocols will have to be supported in 3G MSC along with interworking between ATM and existing PSTN/ISDN networks.The evolution of SGSN and GGSN to 3G nodes is relatively easier. Enhancements to GTP protocol and support for new RANAP protocol are necessary to support 3G wireless systems. ATM protocols need to be incorporated to transport the services. The HLR databases evolve into 3G-HLR by adding 3G wireless user profiles. The VLR database must also be updated accordingly. The EIR database needs to change to accommodate new equipment that will be deployed for 3G wireless systems. Finally, global roaming requires compatibility to existing deployment and graceful fallback to an available level when requested services are not available in the region.Towards this end, the Operator Harmonization Group (OHG) is working closely with 3G Partnership Projects (3GPP and 3GPP2) to come up with global standards for 3G wireless protocols. March 2000 6. Comparison of 2G and 3G Mobile Networks As mentioned above, although there are many similarities between 2G and 3G wireless networks (and many of the 2G and 3G components are shared or connected through interworking functions), there are also many differences between the two technologies. Table 1 compares the differences between the core network, the radio portion and other areas of the two networks.Table 1: Comparison between 2G+ and 3G wireless networks Feature Core Network 2G MSC/VLR, GMSC, HLR/AuC/EIR 2G+ MSC/VLR, GMSC, SGSN, GGSN, HLR/AuC/EIR, CGF 3G 3G MSC/VLR (with added interworking and transcoding), GMSC, HLR/AuC/EIR, 3G-SGSN, GGSN, CGF GMM/SM,MM,CM,BSSAP, RANAP,GTP,SCCP, MTP3B, M3UA, SCTP, Q. 2630. 1 (NNI), TCAP, MAP, ISUP, MTP 3, MTP 2, MTP 1, Q. 2140, SSCOP ATM, IP transport Node B, RNC, MS W-CDMA, CDMA2000, IWC-136 GMM/SM, MAC, RLC, PDCP,RRC,Q. 2630. 1(UNI+ NNI),NBAP, RNSAP, RANAP, SCCP, MTP3B, M3UA, SCTP, GTP-U, Q. 2140, Q. 130, SSCOP, CIP New type of terminal Multiple modes Voice, data and video terminals WAP, multimedia mgmt Enhanced HLR, VLR, EIR,AuC Up to 2Mbps MM, CM, BSSAP, SCCP, ISUP,TCAP, MAP, MTP 3, MTP 2, MTP 1 GMM/SM/SMS, MM, CM, GTP, SNDCP,NS, FR, LLC, BSSGP, BSSAP, BSSAP+, SCCP, TCAP, MAP, ISUP, MTP 3, MTP 2, MTP 1 TDM transport Radio Access BTS, BSC, MS FDMA, TDMA, CDMA MM, CM, RR, LAPDm, LAPD, BSSAP, SCCP, MTP 3, MTP 2, MTP 1 TDM, Frame Relay transport BTS, BSC, MS TDMA, CDMA, EDGE MAC, RLC, GMM/SM/SMS, LLC, SNDCP, BSSGP, NS, FR,RR, BSSAP, SCCP, MTP 3, MTP 2, MTP 1Handsets Voice only terminals New type of terminal Dual mode TDMA and CDMA Voice and data terminals WAP, no multimedia support Databases Data Rates HLR, VLR, EIR, AuC Up to 9. 6 Kbps HLR, VLR, EIR, AuC Up to 57. 6 Kbps (HSCSD) Up to 115Kbps (GPRS) Up to 384 Kbps (EDGE) SMS, Internet Restricted, not global Not compatible to 3G Applications Roaming Compatibility Advanced voice, Short Message Service (SMS) Restricted, not global Not compatible to 3G Internet, multimedia Global Compatible to 2G, 2G+ and Bluetooth March 2000 7. Trillium 3G Wireless SolutionsTrillium offers an extensive wireless software solution portfolio for existing 2G network and for upcoming GPRS and 3G wireless systems. In addition to the protocols shown below, Trillium also offers Fault-Tolerance/High-Availability and distributed architecture enhancements to all system solutions. Trillium’s solutions are shown in Tables 2 and 3 below. Table 2: Trillium’s GPRS Software Solutions (underlined) Device Description BTS (Base Transceiver Station) – Responsible for radio transmission / reception in one or more cells within a service area to/from the mobile handsets. BSC (Base Station Controller) – Responsible for controlling the se and the integrity of the radio resources. 2G-SGSN (Serving GPRS Node) – Provides voice and packet data services and management of mobile subscribers. 2G-GGSN (Gateway GPRS Node) – Provides a gateway interface to external Packet Data Networks (PDN) and manages the routing of the tunneled mobile network protocol data units (PDUs) across the PDN. 2G-CGF (Charging Gateway Function) – responsible for billing services Required Protocol s RLC/MAC NS, BSSGP, Q. 922(core) SNDCP, BSSAP+, LLC, BSSGP, NS, Q. 922 (core), GTP, MAP, TCAP,SCCP, MTP3, MTP2, MTP 1, GMM/SM/SMS GTP, MAP, TCAP, SCCP, MTP 3, MTP 2, MTP 1, GMM/SM, X. 5, LAPB GTP` 2G-MS – The 2G mobile station (handset) enhanced to GMM/SM/SMS, SNDCP, RLC/MAC, provide users enhanced voice and data services. LLC 2G-HLR/AuC/EIR –The 2G Home Location Register MAP,TCAP,SCCP,MTP3, MTP 2, MTP 1 Database with User Profiles 2G-MSC/VLR – The 2G Mobile Switching Center and Visitor Location Register Database BSSAP+,SCCP,MTP3, MTP2, MTP 1 March 2000 Table 3: Trillium’s 3G Wireless Software Solutions (underlined) Device Description Node B – Responsible for radio transmission / reception in one or more cells within a service area to/from the mobile handsets.RNC (Radio Network Controller) – Responsible for controlling the use and the integrity of the radio resources. Replaces 2G/2G+ Base Transceiver Station (BTS) Required Protocols RLC/MAC, NBAP, AAL2 Signaling,Q . 2130, SSCOP Base Station Controller (BSC) PDCP, RLC/MAC, RRC, RANAP, RNSAP, NBAP, AAL2 Signaling, SIGTRAN (SCTP/M3UA), GTP, Q. 2130, SSCOP, Q. 2140, MTP3B, SCCP, CIP RANAP, SCTP/M3UA, GTP, Broadband SS7 (SCCP, MTP3B, Q. 2140, SSCOP), CIP, GMM/SM/SMS, MAP, TCAP, MTP 2, MTP 1 GTP, MAP, TCAP, SCCP, MTP 3, MTP 2, MTP 1 G-SGSN (Serving GPRS Node) – Provides voice and packet data services and management of mobile subscribers. 3G-GGSN (Gateway GPRS Node) – Provides a gateway interface to external Packet Data Networks (PDN) and manages the routing of the tunneled mobile network protocol data units (PDUs) across the PDN. 3G-CGF (Charging Gateway Function) – responsible for billing services 3G-MS – The 3G mobile station (handset) enhanced to provide users enhanced voice and data services. 3G-HLR/AuC/EIR –The 3G Home Location Register Database with User Profiles 3G-MSC/VLR – The 3G Mobile Switching Center and Visitor Location Register Database G SGSN 2G GGSN 2G-CGF GTP’ 2G-MS GMM/SM, PDCP, RLC/MAC, RRC 2G-HLR/AuC/EIR 2G-MSC/VLR MAP,TCAP,SCCP,MTP3, MTP 2, MTP 1 BSSAP+,IS UP,SCCP,MTP3, MTP 2, MTP 1, RANAP, SCCP, Q. 2140, SSCOP, AAL2 Signaling March 2000 8. About Trillium Trillium Digital Systems is the leading provider of communications software solutions for the converged network infrastructure. Trillium’s source code solutions are used in more than 500 projects by industry-leading suppliers of wireless, Internet, broadband and telephony products.Trillium’s high-performance, high-availability software and services reduce the time, risk and cost of implementing SS7, IP, H. 323, MGCP, ATM, Wireless and other standards-based communications protocols. Trillium actively participates in the development of 3rd generation systems by developing standards-based wireless communications protocols. It is likely that the first 3G mobile terminals will be multi-mode devices, which means that they will support a number of 2nd generation protocol standards in order to reach wide network coverage and to provide 3rd generation advanced services.Trillium has extensive know-how in all the major communications protocol standards in the world and can provide solutions for many types of networks. Trillium designs all its portable software products using the Trillium Advanced Portability Architecture (TAPAâ„ ¢ ), a set of architectural and coding standards that ensure the software is completely independent of the compiler, processor, operating system and architecture of the target system.This makes Trillium products portable, consistent, reliable, high quality, high performance, flexible, and scaleable. This architecture also ensures that all Trillium protocols can interwork seamlessly in the same or between different networks. As mentioned above, successful implementation, adoption, and overall acceptance of the 3G wireless networks depends largely on the ability of these new mobile networks to interface and interwork with the existing 2G and legacy networks currently deployed worldwide.Trillium offers a broad range of protocols for first- and second-generation mobile networks, legacy networks, and fixed networks. Trillium’s products allow wireless communications e quipment manufacturers to develop â€Å"best-in-class† next-generation mobile networks, to ensure success of the network operator and service provider, and to ensure wide acceptance of the new services by end-users. Additional information is available at http://www. trillium. com. How to cite Third Generation (3g) Wireless White Paper, Papers

Poetic Terminology Essay Example For Students

Poetic Terminology Essay Ballad-a song of sorts with two or more stanzas, sung to a melody, generally of romantic character 7. Blank verse- nurturing verse, generally put in iambic pentameter [EX: The Ball Poem By John Ferryman What is the boy now, who has lost his ball/What, what is he to do? I saw it go/Merrily bouncing, down the street, and then/Merrily over-there it is in the water! ] 8. Concrete poetry- the typographical arrangement of the poem Is as Important as the content of the poem Itself LEG: The author Ellen Hopkins writes concrete poetry In all of her books-?crank, Burned, Impulse, Glass, Identical, and Tricks. ] 9. Connotation- implied meaning associated with certain words LEG: Cheap has a negative connotation, implying that someone is too tight with money. Economical has a positive connotation, implying that someone spends their money wisely. 10. Denotation- literal definition of words 11. Dactyl- In essence, the opposite of anapest. One long or stressed syllable, followed by two short or unstressed syllables. LEG: Basketball Is an example of a dactyl. Baa-skeet-ball (short syllables bold, long syllables underlined)] 12. Diction-a way of speaking, where the specific choice of words makes one sound better, more intelligent. 13. Dramatic monologue- One perso n performs a speech that defines a certain theatrical moment. 14. English sonnet (Shakespearean sonnet) (what is rhyme scheme and how are the 14 lines split)- An English sonnet Is a song following strict Shakespearean sonnets generally have a rhyming scheme of a-b-a-b, c-d-c-d, e-f-e-f, g- g. The last two lines are a couplet. 15. Italian sonnet- Patriarchate sonnet) (what is rhyme scheme and how are the 14 lines split)- The structure is based in parts of an argument: proposition describing the problem then proposes the solution. The ninth line is generally known for being the turn from problem to resolution. It is also traditionally in iambic pentameter as well as English sonnets. The pattern in Italian sonnets starts with a-b-b-a, a-b-b-a, has two options for the middle: c-d-e-c-d-e or c-d-c-c-d-c. 16. Elegy-a melancholy, or plaintive poem generally mourning someone who is dead. [EX: Walt Whitman O Captain! My Captain! Here Captain! Dear father! /This arm is beneath your head;/let is some dream that on deck,] Youve fallen cold and dead] 17. Metaphor- figure of speech that describes something through comparison to something entirely unrelated otherwise. 18. Epic- Traditionally long, it narrates the adventures or lives of heroes fighting their adversaries. 19. Epigram- Satirical and memorable statement, that is brief and interesting. 21. Imagery- descriptive language, written to paint a picture. 22. Iamb-metrical foot in poetry. [EX: Some words that are an iamb would be: behold, amuse, depict, destroy, or insist.

Letter to Congressman Vito .J .Fossilla an Example of the Topic Economics Essays by

Letter to Congressman Vito .J .Fossilla Dear Congressman Vito J. Fossella, Need essay sample on "Letter to Congressman Vito .J .Fossilla" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed I am congratulating you for your major achievements in representing the 13th Congressional District Staten Island and Brooklyn and the American people at large in the 110th US congress. You have successfully opposed plans to eliminate federal tax deductions for mortgage interest and state and local tax payers, defeated the Brooklyn Veterans Affairs Hospital recommendation of its closure, saving the Fort Hamilton military base from its closure by BRAC and helping secure $21 billion in rebuilding and securing lower Manhattan in the wake of 9/11 terrorist attacks. This is a show that you have effectively accomplished your legislation priorities which were on reduced taxes, improved national and social security. However, there are many issues that need to be put forth as legislative proposals that will further contribute to the betterment of our country. The economic performance of our country is particularly vital. According to some recent polls, majority of us view the current economic crisis as a serious matter that broadly needs stimulation. Economic development is essential as it will bring forth improved social services, education, infrastructure and availability of quality jobs but recently a surprisingly high number of Americans have lost their jobs. The collapse of major banks such as Wachovia Bank which is one of the biggest banks shows there is need for congressional Act. Dexia and Fortis banks had to be also rescued from bankruptcy. This economic crisis is even affecting the stock market. Dow Jones Industrial plunged an average record of 777.68 points in one of the worst drops in one day in the history of this country. More bail outs aimed at securing the economy need to be put in place. (Telegraph Media Group Ltd (2008). In a report by the Worlds Economic Forum on latest Global Competitiveness Report on October 7, 2008, the US economy still remains the most competitive in the world. To hold this superiority, the congress needs to come up with unique measures. Some developing economies like Qatar, Saudi Arabia, China and India are posing a major threat with their rise as more preferred destination for global investors. The government requires regulating the legal environment to attract these investors. The major worry slowing this countries economy is the publics debt that the government owes. It may limit the fiscal policy in the near future. Just like Klaus Schwab, the executive chairman of the World Economy Forum said, it is more important than ever for countries including US, to put into place the fundamentals underpinning economic growth on development at this wake of uncertainty in the global economic environment. (Werdigier. J, 2008) The issue of a weakening US dollar against the Euro and other currencies of emerging economies is scaring. Growth in this country has been projected to 1.9% in 2007-2008 which is below potential. Root causes like the housing market needs attention. (Hemispher. W, 2007). Arising issues affecting this countries economy like energy crisis should be focused. Regulations should be made and long time solutions arrived at. Issues like foreign policy should be restricted from affecting the economy. In recent polls, majority of Americans want the next leadership to be in place to respond to the economic issue. They feel the vying leaders should prioritize this issue to win the November elections. (Chicago Tribune, 2008). UBSs Magnus felt that this economic crisis will continue for months generating new problems until a new man occupies the white House (Telegraph Media Group Ltd, 2008) You should put forth legislative proposals aimed at ensuring that the economic supremacy of US is maintained. Bail out that will offer financial security to global investors in our banks would be important. Other bails aimed at lifting security of the economy in times of crisis should be lifted. Insurance policies should be reached at for the compensation of the laid off worker in collapsing financial institutions. The government should impose measures on its public debts which is causing a major threat on our economy. It is unfortunate that the intervention through our public servants is badly needed for us to have any hope of returning to our once active economy. Please take a moment to review my proposal. Thank you very sincerely for your consideration and support. References Telegraph Media Group Limited (2008) financial crisis in America. Retrieved on Thursday, October 09, 2008 from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/3136744/Financi al-crisis-America-and-Europe-attempt-to-stave-off-financial-meltdown.html Werdigerier, J. (2008) International Herald Tribune. Economy remains the most competitive: Retrieved on Thursday, October 09, 2008 from http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/10/08/business/compete.php Chicago Tribune. (2008) CT Conventional centre Hartford. Retrieved on Thursday, October 09, 2008 from http://www.courant.com/news/nationworld/hc- campaign1009.artoct09,0,1715750.story Hemispher, W. (2007), International Monetary Fund Regional. Economic Outlook: International Monetary Fund.

Nursing Graduate School Essay Sample

Nursing Graduate School Essay SampleIf you're a nurse looking to begin a new career or just need a refresher on the basics of nursing education, it's important to understand how to write a nursing graduate school essay. This is one of the few topics where there are so many options that you should do some research before choosing the best one for your own needs. You may not have to go to the most expensive school in the area to get a good education.For example, some hospitals offer a program for those who have been a current nurse for more than two years. This program will allow you to earn both your nursing degree and your Doctor of Nursing Practice degree from a university, providing additional research opportunities and learning opportunities. When choosing to pursue this option, you may choose between a four-year program, or a two-year program, or an accelerated program, all depending on your personal goals and needs.Also, if you have prior hospital experience, you may wish to con sider completing a hospital program. These programs often come with either a four-year program or a two-year program. The length of time required for both is typically quite short, often just one year, and can be a great way to get familiar with hospital-related curriculum while gaining valuable nursing education. Hospital programs are an excellent choice for nurses seeking a refresher on the basics.If you are university students, or a student who has already earned an undergraduate degree, you may want to complete a nursing master's program. These programs usually include a one-year internship or a two-year nursing fellowship program, which allows you to continue your studies and learn about hospital work while fulfilling responsibilities as a nursing student.When writing your nursing graduate school essay, you will want to keep in mind the style guide for different colleges. These guides help you choose a more logical approach to your essay. The guidelines are not always set in st one, but you can definitely take advantage of them and make your essay more interesting and cohesive.To help you with your nursing graduate school essay, we have provided a sample. Take a look below to find out what to include in your own nursing graduate school essay.Here is a sample for a nursing graduate school essay: I am writing a nursing graduate school essay to introduce myself to the nursing profession. My primary goal is to learn about the nursing profession, which would help me in my future career choices.

Fields of destruction essays

Fields of destruction essays On March 24th, 1999, the NATO alliance, led by the United States, began bombing Yugoslavia. They bombed every day, with steadily increasing numbers of planes and escalating destructive power of bombs. The bombing was finally halted after 78 days, with an agreement for withdrawal of Yugoslav troops from Kosovo, to be replaced by a mixed force of NATO and The bombing of Yugoslavia was, overwhelmingly, of specifically civilian targets: homes, roads, farms, factories, hospitals, bridges, churches, monasteries, columns of refugees, TV stations, office buildings. The bombing was not intended to maximize civilian deaths, but neither was it intended to minimize them. The aim of the bombing was to destroy civilian installations on which people's lives and comfort depended, killing a few thousand random civilians for good measure, and thus weakening the will of the population to resist, so that they would submit to NATO occupation. Why did NATO bombed the small country like Yugoslavia? For this question there is a few different answers. First, NATO officials would say they did it to save thousands of lives from genocide committed by Milosevics/ Yugoslav army. However nobody ever mentioned the genocide that happened on the Serbian people. One of the biggest massacres on Serbian population happened in village called Klecka. Some of the news never got to the US people, because that was going against NATO objectives. US Envoy in Belgrade Christopher Hill said: I condemn the horrible massacres of serb civilians committed by Albanian terrorists.the united states are shocked by brutalities in village of Klecka. Whom ever did this must be punished. The united states do not support the armed battles of the KLA and condemn of any kind of aggression, as well as kidnapping of civilians.(www.gov.yu/terrotism/genocide.html) ...

The Best AP US Government Notes to Study With

The Best AP US Government Notes to Study With SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips As a high schooler, you're undoubtedly on the verge of participating in the democratic process. It's a great time to learn more about the structure and history of our government and how politics actually work. You're probably taking notes in your AP class based on your teacher's lectures and the information in your textbook, but it can be nice to have all the information you need in one place. This article will give you links to notes on every topic in the AP US Government curriculum along with a few tips on how to study effectively. How to Use These AP Government Notes These notes may be used throughout the year if you’re looking for materials to help you review for in-class tests.They can also be used cumulatively as study resources for the AP test.It’s a smart idea to supplement the notes in this article with more detailed notes from your class or a review book.You may find that your review book or textbook outlines certain topics more clearly or contains a more consolidated list of key concepts. If you’re using these notes to prepare directly for the final AP exam, I’d recommend taking a full (accurately timed) practice test before reviewing them.You can then decide which topics to target based on where you made the most mistakes on the practice test. It’s more efficient to do things this way rather than reading through all the notes indiscriminately.It’s also nice to get used to the format of the test questions and the timing of the test before you get too far into your studying.You may discover that you have more issues with timing or question wording than with content knowledge, in which case you’ll want to focus on doing additional practice questions. AP US Government Notes The exam covers six main topics, each of which has several major subtopics.The AP Govnotes below come from a site called CourseNotes, and their titles are based on the corresponding chapters of the American Government 11th edition textbook.These notes have practice questions that go along with them at the end, which can be used to help you retain the information after you read through it.You can also look at these detailed political timelines from CourseNotes to put all these concepts in context and see how they’ve impacted American history. The vocabulary lists and the links to important documents at the end of this section both come from the APStudyNotes website. Topic #1: Constitutional Underpinnings of the US Government Vocabulary Chapter 1: Constitutional Democracy Chapter 2: The Living Constitution Chapter 3: American Federalism Notes The Study of American Government The Constitution Federalism Topic #2: Political Beliefs and Behaviors Vocabulary Chapter 4: Political Culture and Ideology Chapter 5: The American Political Landscape Notes American Political Culture Who Governs? To What Ends? Topic #3: Political Parties, Interest Groups, and Mass Media Vocabulary Chapter 6: Interest Groups Chapter 7: Political Parties Chapter 8: Public Opinion, Participation, And Voting Chapter 9: Campaigns and Elections Chapter 10: The Media and American Politics Notes Public Opinion Political Participation Political Parties American Independent Party American Party Anti-Masonic Party Constitutional Union Party Democratic Party Democratic-Republican Party Federalist Party Free-Soil Party Greenback-Labor Party Libertarian Party Liberty Party National Republican Party People's Party Progressive Party Reform Party Republican Party Socialist Party Whig Party Elections and Campaigns Interest Groups The Media Topic #4: Institutions of National Government Vocabulary Chapter 11: Congress Chapter 12: The Presidency Chapter 13: The Federal Administrative System Chapter 14: The Judiciary Notes Congress The Presidency The Bureaucracy The Judiciary(Briefs on major Supreme Court cases can be found here) Topic #5: Public Policy Vocabulary Chapter 18: Making Economic and Regulatory Policy Chapter 19: Making Social Policy Chapter 20: Making Foreign and Defense Policy Notes The Policy-Making Process Economic Policy Social Welfare Foreign and Military Policy Environmental Policy Topic #6: Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Vocabulary Chapter 15: First Amendment Freedoms Chapter 16: Rights to Life, Liberty, and Property Chapter 17: Equal Rights under the Law Notes Civil Liberties Civil Rights Important Documents Declaration of Independence Constitution Bill of Rights (Amendments 1-10) Constitutional Amendments 11-27 These documents are love letters to democracy that show the founding fathers' devotion to political equality for all citizens (i.e. white dudes with property...sigh...). AP US Government Study Strategies Here are a few helpful tips to keep in mind as you look through these AP Government notes. Tailoring your study strategies to the structure of the curriculum and the format of test questions is the first step towards earning a high AP score! Practice Writing Clear, Direct Free-Response Answers US Government is one of the more technical humanities subjects, so the free-response questions have multiple parts that only require short answers. In most cases, ifyou give a valid example or definition and a short explanation, you’ll earn points.There’s no reason to pad your answers with unnecessary fluff or write them in essay format.Make sure you review plenty of free-response questions and scoring guidelines to get a better idea of what’s expected on the test in comparison to, say, a history or literature AP exam.You can find a list of AP US Government free-response questions and score guidelines here. Know the Most Prevalent Acts and Court Cases There are a number of importantcourt cases and legislative acts that have dramatically shaped US politics over the years.Make sure you understand the most prominent of these before you take the test.They will come up often in both sections.Even if free-response questions don’t ask about them directly, you may need to use these acts or court cases as supporting examples for other responses.It’s good to have a mental library of the most significant legislative and judiciary milestones in the history of the US that you can access at any point during the test.I’d recommend making flashcards for all the acts and cases you need to remember. Pay Special Attention to Congress and the Presidency Questions on Congress and the Presidency make up about a third of the test.You should know the composition of each branch of government, its powers, and changes to its role over time.You should also understand the ins and outs of election processes and have a detailed knowledge of how the legislature goes about drafting and passing laws. Memorize Definitions of Key Terms This is another area where flashcards might come in handy.You can use all the vocabulary lists I included in the notes as references, or you might have your own vocabulary lists from class or a review book.You’ll find that many questions are based on your knowledge of definitions.Sometimes, parts of free-response questions will just ask you to define terms.You’ll have a much easier time on the test if all the definitions are securely stored in the back of your mind. Flashcards will help you come up with a lightning flash of memory after the thunderclap of a tough test question. Conclusion: Using AP Government Notes Effectively Notes for AP US Government cover six major topic areas that encompass a wide range of concepts. These topics include: Constitutional Underpinnings of the Government Political Beliefs and Behaviors Political Parties, Interest Groups, and Mass Media Institutions of National Government Public Policy Civil Rights and Civil Liberties You can use the AP Gov notes in this article to review for in-class assessments throughout the year and in making final preparations for the AP test. The best way to review is to take a full practice test first so you can assess your areas of weakness and focus in on those topics. I'd also recommend keeping the following pieces of advice in mind as you study: Practice Writing Clear, Direct Free-Response Answers Know the Most Prevalent Acts and Court Cases Pay Special Attention to Congress and the Presidency Memorize Definitions of Key Terms Provided you avoid cramming and study the notes selectively, you'll be on the right track towards a stellar performance on the final exam. What's Next? Not totally sure how to begin studying for the AP test? Take a look at our five-step plan that will walk you through it.If you happen to be self-studying for the exam,you can also check out our seven-step plan custom-made for your situation. High-quality practice tests are important if you want to make the best use of these notes.Learn how you can find the best AP practice tests out there to supplement your studying. Are you still planning out the rest of your high school schedule? Find out how many AP classes you should take in total considering your goals for college and the offerings at your school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now: